Human Development Theories

Human Development Theories Introduction Cherry (2010) asserts that a child development which arises from the time of birth to adulthood was greatly overlooked throughout a great deal of the history of mankind. Essentially, children were appreciated as mare small version of adults and minimal concern was focused on the many improvements in their cognitive abilities, physical growth and language mastery.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Development Theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, interest in child development started to crop up the early 20th century, and was aimed at elucidating abnormal behaviors. The proceeding paragraphs, describes just two of the theories on child development. Stages of cognitive growth based on Piaget’s theory of development. (Atherton, 2010) 1. The sensory-motor stage (birth – 2 yrs): According to Piaget, a normal newly born baby will reach a point where it will start to distinguish self from objects. This implies that the infant will begin to appreciate self as the mediator of an action, and start acting deliberately. For instance, shaking a rattle to produce a noise or pulling a cord to set an itinerant in motion. At some level, it attains object permanence whereby it starts realizing that things persist even when they are no more conscious of them. 2. The pre-operational stage (2 7 yrs): At the pre-operational stage, the child learns to exercise language and to characterize things by words and images. At this phase, thinking is still egocentric in the sense that he/she has problems with accommodating others’ views. Also, classification of things is by one feature; for instance, grouping all rectangle blocks in spite of color or all blue blocks in spite of their shapes. 3. The concrete operational stage ( 7 – 11 yrs):Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By this period, the child is able to think rationally concerning events and objects. He/she attains conservation of number, mass, and weight; at age 6, 7 and 9, respectively. Also, he/she classifies objects based on several features and can sequence them depending on a single characteristics such as size. 4. The formal operational stage (11 yrs and above): In this period, the child can think logically concerning abstract intentions, and examine hypothesis methodically. Also, she/he becomes apprehensive of ideological, hypothetical, and the future problems. Stages of cognitive growth based on Freud’s theory of psychosexual development Freud held the opinion that the development process of individuals constitutes five stages. However, Freud claims that many people fail to complete these stages because they tied up their libido at one stage, thereby hindering them from utilizing the energy at a later stage. Libido, in this context was used by Freud to signify sexua l and spiritual energy. These stages include; a. Oral phase stage (from birth up to 1 year): At this stage, the mouth acts as the center of attraction of a child’s libido. This stage is characterized by frustration for dependence on someone for something (Crain, 2005). Obsession at this phase may present as an abuse of oral stimulations such as eating, drinking or smoking. b. The anal phase of development (2-3 yrs):Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Development Theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The individual are introduced to rules and regulations for the first time since they were familiarized with toilet instruction (Crain, 2005). This familiarity period helps determine the person’s future responses to rules and regulations. At this stage of development, the anus acts as the centre of attraction of the libido. In addition, the child is in the process of discovering novel complex motor. F urthermore, frustrations could result; from cognitive responses. Obsession during this stage translates to orderliness, stinginess, messiness, or stubbornness. Fundamental behaviors characterized by preservation and expulsion may be connected to the experiences during this stage. c. The phallic phase of development (4-5 yrs): Several developmentally crucial events, unique to boys and girls, happen during this phase. Below is a description of the aforementioned events: The Oedipus conflict: the occurrence of this conflict begins at a time when the boy child starts to feel sexually attracted to his mother. As a result, he views his father as an enemy, because he is also competing for the attention of the mother. He starts to dread the father’s suspicion about his lust for the mother and the imminent penalty by him for the lust. Spontaneously, the dreaded penalty is that of castration. The castration anxiety: this anxiety drives the boy child to the conclusion that the father h ates him, and may ultimately become excruciating leading to his renouncing of the feelings, and decision to compromise to his father hoping that one day he will develop affection with a different woman just like between his parents. Despite the similarity in the oral and anal phases of growth for both boy and girl (center of attention and affection being the mother), deviation in the focus occurs when the baby girl realizes her lack of penis, a phenomenon referred to as penis envy.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This causes her to despise her mother on realizing the lack of penis on her mother, while she becomes attracted to her father on the ground of his possession of the penis. Similarly, girls start to be suspicious of her mother’s (same sexuality) knowledge of her attraction towards her father and that the mother hates her for that. These feelings persist for sometimes until it reaches a point where she resents her feeling and chooses to side with the mother. d. The latency phase (7 yrs puberty): This period encroaches following the resolution of the Oedipus conflict and suppression of the feeling that developed during that episode. This phase is characterized by rest devoid of any developmental incidences. e. The genital phase: This phase of development starts from puberty and is characterized by development of the genitals and adaptation of libido to its true sexual purpose. Nevertheless, the feelings for the inverse sex cause anxiety since they remind them of the undesirable feelings they possessed towards their parents and the distress associated with them. Contrast and comparison between Piaget’s and Freud’s developmental theories Piaget’s theory describes a child development from the cognitive view point. He proposes that children patterns of thought differ from those of an adult. This he described in his stage theory on cognitive development. On the other hand Freud’s theory explains the child developmental stages from a psychosexual analytic perspective. Based on this theory a child development is explained as sequence of psychosexual phases; oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Every stage concerns the satisfaction of a libido and later determines the adult’s individuality (Cherry, 2010). A Piagetian –based education syllabus emphasizes a learner centered educational philosophy, which does not fit with the contemporary American school educational system including programmed instruction, teaching mach ines, tutor lectures, audio visual presentation, and demonstration. On the contrary Piaget advocates dynamic discovery learning atmosphere in education system. According to the theorist, children should be allowed to search out answers for themselves through questions, experiments, manipulation, and exploration (Wanda, 1988). Nevertheless, children should not be left to do as they please, instead teachers should be in position to evaluate the child’s current cognitive progress, including their strength and weakness. This theory commends for the personalization of the instructions for each student and the opportunity to debate and argue problems. He perceived tutors as the facilitators of knowledge by guiding and motivating the learners. The tutor should provide the students with resources, situations and occasion which help them to discern novel knowledge. Eventually, the teacher should express confidence in the child’s capability to learn by self (1988). According to Cherry (2010), Sigmund Freud’s theory produced shocking reactions following its introduction, and it continues to create debate and controversy particularly on the discipline of art, literature, psychology, anthropology and sociology. The terminology psychoanalysis refers to various aspects of Freud’s research and work including the Freudian therapy, and the methods he employed in his studies. Conclusion These theories sometimes are not a perfect match of the real life experiences a child passes. Besides, they do not sometimes accurately describe the exact events which happen in children lives. For instance according to a2zpsychology.com (2006), some limitations to Freud’s psychosexual development theory exist. The theory cannot be tested with ease, and the evidence collected to proof it is invalid. Additionally, the crucial events such as how the libido is applied lack makers and are not measurable. Again, a long period between the onset of the underlying stimu lus and the supposed consequence; weakness and inconsistency between early events and the future traits undermines the theory. Finally, the theory was developed from the studies of psychotic persons while not from studying children. Similarly, gathered evidence on Piaget’s theory depicts it as overly rigid, since many children have been proven to attain actual operations earlier than theorized, and some individuals completely may fail to attain recognized operations. However, Piaget’s theory forms the foundation for the school of cognitive constructivism where it seem more relevant (Atherton, 2010). Reference List Atherton, J. S (2010). Learning and Teaching; Piagets developmental theory Piagets Developmental Theory. Cherry, K. (2010). Child development theories: major theories of child development. Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and application (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, (2010). Stevens on, D. B. (2001). Freud’s psychosexual stages of Development. October 19, 2010, from The Victorian web; literature, history, culture in the age of  Victoria Wanda, G .Y. (1988). Jean Piaget’s –Intellectual development.

History of Classroom Inclusion essays

History of Classroom Inclusion essays The mistreatment of individuals with disabilities in the past was commonplace. Attitudes began to change with increased scientific understanding and democratic values. Special schools for the deaf and blind were developed. Disabled persons were seen as capable of learning. Conditions in institutions for the mentally ill and retarded became more humane. The first federal laws of the United States designed to support individuals with disabilities were passed in 1798 (Bauer During the nineteenth century, reformers pushed for new and more humane institutions. Many children especially those with severe or multiple disabilities were ignored. Before the passage of the federal legislation mandating services for the students with disabilities, these individuals were routinely and legally excluded from school (Mastropieri Since World War II rapid changes occurred in student enrollment, teacher training programs and state support. A national shift in philosophy emerged due to the return of wounded war veterans. They opposed leading unproductive lives separate from their abled peers. The new trend was toward integration and making individuals lives as normal as possible (Bauer Many twentieth century developments contributed to the advancement of special education. It has been shaped by federal law, the civil rights movement and related court cases, and changing social and political beliefs (Friend ...

'It is impossible to discern from the approach of the judiciary to Essay

'It is impossible to discern from the approach of the judiciary to either the question of the incidence of the burden of proof - Essay Example CJS is accountable for apprehending the criminals, penalising them for their offences, executing the orders of the court like custodial punishment, collecting fines imposed by courts, supervising the community and to rehabilitate them for stopping future crimes2. CJS evaluates its operation by employing the following five indicators namely a) bringing crimes to justice b) enhancing the awareness and confidence of the public c) satisfying the victims by sentencing the criminals d) to redress the disproportionality among various races and e) recovery of stolen assets or properties3. As per recent research study carried over by academics at Birmingham University reveals that crime rates will tend to decline when there are tougher prison sentences and further there is a direct link between levels of policing activity and crime reduction . Hence, the study strongly suggests that UK government should desist from downsizing its police personnel, mainly on the grounds of cost cutting. The ab ove study found that prison imprisonment was especially successful in minimising the property crime by repeat and serious offenders in UK. It also found that if sentence is increased to 16.4 months from that of 15.4 months, it is likely to minimise the burglaries in the succeeding year by 4800 out of annual aggregate of 962,700. The report finds that there is unambiguous evidence that more effective and sustained policing will definitely minimise the crime rates in UK4. Burden of proof in criminal cases Under English criminal law , the most renowned cannon is that the accused will be treated as innocent until the prosecution proves the guilty of offence of an accused by beyond realistic doubt. Though the English law assumes an accused as an innocent, but it yet requires upon the prosecution to produce adequate evidence so that the court can declare the accused as an offender. The famous maxim as held in Hobson5 that one innocent man should not be punished even if ten guilty men coul d escape from the punishment. Earlier, in Woolmington v DPP, where defendant W claimed that he killed her wife accidentally. In that case, the court was of the view that defendant had the onus of proving any defence it which wanted to forward. However, the same was turned down by the House of Lords, and it held that, the prosecution had the onus of establishing all the components of crime except in some extraordinary cases, and it did not acknowledge any defences forwarded by the accused6. Thus, the â€Å"golden thread â€Å" rule which inflicts the whole legal onus on the prosecution, and the maxim that the Crown must establish its case beyond any satisfactory doubt was held in very old case namely 7White8. Thus, in Woolmington case9, the House of Lord set precedent by pronouncing that the prosecution assumes the whole onus in criminal cases. It is claimed that by placing the whole burden of proof on prosecution, it helps to minimise the wrongful convictions by police. It also de notes the severity of criminal convictions and thereby increases the moral convictions among the police. Thus, under English law, the prosecution is responsible for any of defences put forth by an accused like alibi, provocation, self-defence or duress. In Ashley v Chief Constable of Sussex Police,10 in criminal proceedings, the onus of negativing self-defence lies upon the prosec