Essay on Resistance To The Modernity of American Culture

In the poem Howl, Allen Ginsberg challenges the political modernity of American culture that enforces the â€Å"best minds† to give up their freedom to gain the desired sense of normalcy that is glorified. He states â€Å"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked/dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn looking for an angry fix† (Ginsberg 9). That angry fix that he describes is what all of these â€Å"best minds† look for after being striped of their freedom to conform to the new American culture after World War II. Without question a â€Å"best mind† in Ginsberg’s reference is one with all the freedom and insight before the turn of American culture that explicitly loose it through modernity. The†¦show more content†¦Lastly, Ginsberg repeats â€Å"I’m with you in Rockland† in the final part. This addressed that not just Ginsberg himself is with â€Å"you†, the re ader, but also all the people that were destroyed by the desired normalcy of living. â€Å"I’m with you in Rockland/ where we hug and kiss the United States under/ our bedsheets the United States that coughs all/ night and won’t let us sleep† (26) Ginsberg states. Ginsberg reflects on the satire of people worshipping American culture when it is actually the cause of their trouble. They are glorifying a culture that restricts you to normality, and destroys the best minds. These parts take the reader behind who Ginsberg thinks the â€Å"best minds† are and how the American culture changed the fundamental desires to destroy them. American culture after World War II changed the idea of what people should desire for in life. The shift to looking for normalcy is what left the â€Å"best minds† looking for something more. The battle of politics left some people dishonestly worshipping Capitalism, or others resisting Communism. The ones â€Å"who burned cigarette holes in their arms protesting the narcotic tabacco haze of Capitalism† (13) says Ginsberg were just falling in to the consumerism that Capitalism aspired to, regardless that they claimed to be resisting it. The politics of America left those â€Å"who distributed Supercommunist pamphlets in Union/Show MoreRelatedModern Film On Our Rational And Critical Thought Processes1372 Words   |  6 Pagessubjectivities that will help the masses assimilate into modernity. Horkheimer and Adorno s understanding of film reflects our current reality. Although Benjamin acknowledges film s current state, he envisions a future where film trains us to cope with the pressures of modernity. In The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception, Horkheimer and Adorno argue film oppresses our ability to think critically. They base their argument on how culture today is infecting everything with sameness (HorkheimerRead MoreThe Effects Of Modern Film On Our Rational And Critical Thought Processes1395 Words   |  6 Pagessubjectivities that will help the masses assimilate into modernity. Horkheimer and Adorno s understanding of film reflects our current reality. Although Benjamin acknowledges film s current state, he envisions a future where film trains us to cope with the pressures of modernity. In The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception, Horkheimer and Adorno argue that film oppresses our ability to think critically. They argue how culture today is infecting everything with sameness (94). ThatRead MoreExploring Everyday Life Throughout Contemporary American History Essay866 Words   |  4 Pagescontemporary American soci-ety, noted the â€Å"acceleration of just about everything†: love, life, speech, politics, work, TV, leisure, etc. With this observation he certainly is not alone. In popular as well as scientific discourse about the current evolution of Western societies, acceleration figures as the single most striking and important feature. But although there is a noticeable increase in the discourse about acceleration and the shortage of time in recent years, the feeling that history, culture, societyRead More Revised Paper On German Modernism1235 Words   |  5 Pagesof Modernity Throughout time, nations have attempted to become independent from one another by discovering means, which would help their citizens experience more fulfilling lives. The dilemma that troubled each of these countries is whether or not innovations, in technology and society, led to a higher quality of life. Modris Eckstein and Marshall Berman examine both, the damages and benefits of modernity. Eckstein looks at individual changes that lead to the overall acceptance of modernity. HeRead MoreChallenging the Modernity of American Culture: The Howl by Allen Ginsberg1165 Words   |  5 Pageschallenges the modernity of American culture, which enforces the â€Å"best minds† (1) to give up their freedom to conform to the desired sense of normality. Ginsberg states â€Å"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked/ dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn looking for an angry fix† (9). His expression of Moloch The angry fix is what all of these â€Å"best minds† look for after being stripped of their freedom to conform to the new American culture after WorldRead MoreThe Discourse Of The Veil883 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscusses the origins and history as an idea of the veil which informs Western colonial discourse and 20th century-Arabic debate have several implications. The first implication is the evident connection between the issue of culture of women, as well as between the cultures of other men and the oppression of women, which was created by Western discourse. The idea that improving the status of women resulting in abandoning native customs was constructed by an androcentric colonial establishment, whichRead MoreGlobal Media1711 Words   |  7 PagesNowadays, people live in a global age and the pace of globalisation has accelerated as a result of the rapid development of technology and economy. Under the process of globalisation, both the local culture and the mass media are affected dramatically. The phenomenon of homogenisation and heterogenisation has been created and is considered as the most representative and symbolic impact. However, the topic of globalisation is highly controversial and needs to be analysed in depth. In history, threeRead MoreThe West Thought Of China And Japan1110 Words   |  5 Pagescentury, westerners had an ‘Orientalism’ mind about the Eastern countries. The word ‘Orientalism’ was used first in the book Orientalism by Edward W. Said in 1979. Its original meaning was an exoticism of the East appearing in European (Western) culture and art. Today, however, it is used to imply the distortion and bias of the West towards the East, justifying supremacy and domination of the West to the East. During that time, the West and the East (especially China and Japan) had contacted eachRead MoreEssay on Traditional African Music1598 Words   |  7 Pagesthe word traditional, presents a problem in many ways. The imp lications of the word are many, and are tied to various connotations. Some people, Westerners in particular, may actually shun the traditional, as they feel that it implies a resistance to modernity. This view is incorrect, and there exists an ethnocentric double standard when Westerners consider their tradition versus African tradition. Others focus on tradition as that which has always been done, for whatever reason, and that it mustRead MorePutting Constitutional Protections in the Backseat for Non-Conformist American Experiences606 Words   |  3 PagesA country born of laws, rights and citizenship with the idea of a free people to govern over themselves, was the original intent of the American experience. However, America did not inherit traditional bonds of a national identity, so it had to rely on a few cultural foundations that became critical in deciding who belonged in the American experience. The pillars seemed to be a common language of English, a religion based on a br oad view of Christianity, and the notion of a traditional family. As

Why tough teachers have good results - 2232 Words

Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results Wall Street Journal THE SATURDAY ESSAY September 27, 2013, 7:17 p.m. ET By JOANNE LIPMAN I had a teacher once who called his students idiots when they screwed up. He was our orchestra conductor, a fierce Ukrainian immigrant named Jerry Kupchynsky, and when someone played out of tune, he would stop the entire group to yell, Who eez deaf in first violins!? He made us rehearse until our fingers almost bled. He corrected our wayward hands and arms by poking at us with a pencil. Today, hed be fired. But when he died a few years ago, he was celebrated: Forty years worth of former students and colleagues flew back to my New Jersey hometown from every corner of the country, old instruments in†¦show more content†¦Wrong again. In a 2006 study, a Bowling Green State University graduate student followed 31 Ohio band students who were required to audition for placement and found that even students who placed lowest did not decrease in their motivation and self-esteem in the long term. The study concluded that educators need not be as concerned about the negative effects of picking winners and losers. 4. Strict is better than nice. What makes a teacher successful? To find out, starting in 2005 a team of researchers led by Claremont Graduate University education professor Mary Poplin spent five years observing 31 of the most highly effective teachers (measured by student test scores) in the worst schools of Los Angeles, in neighborhoods like South Central and Watts. Their No. 1 finding: They were strict, she says. None of us expected that. The researchers had assumed that the most effective teachers would lead students to knowledge through collaborative learning and discussion. Instead, they found disciplinarians who relied on traditional methods of explicit instruction, like lectures. The core belief of these teachers was, Every student in my room is underperforming based on their potential, and its my job to do something about it—and I can do something about it, says Prof. Poplin. She reported her findings in a lengthy academic paper. But she says that a fourth-grader summarized herShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results 937 Words   |  4 PagesTough Teachers Evaluation of â€Å"Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results† by Joanne Lipman is a well-supported article. Mrs. Lipman gives good insight to tough teachers getting good results form their students by using her experience with her music teacher Mr. Kupchynsky. She provides many references to case studies preformed on students in classrooms by doctors and graduate students to support her point. Mrs. Lipman explains that her Mr. Kupchynsky was a strict teacher, but because of his strictnessRead MoreEvaluation Of Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results 935 Words   |  4 PagesEvaluation of â€Å"Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results† by Joanne Lipman is a well-supported article. Mrs. Lipman gives good insight to tough teachers getting good results from their students by using her experience with her music teacher Mr. Kupchynsky. She provides many references to case studies performed on students in classrooms by doctors and graduate students to support her point. Mrs. Lipman exp lains that her Mr. Kupchynsky was a strict teacher, but because of his strictness when he passed awayRead MoreMad Hot Ballroom Essay1327 Words   |  6 Pagesall these students, everyone is expected to simply do the work at home, and come back to school to turn it in and receive more and do the same process over and over. But when there are other activities a child can be involved in, it makes routines have a slight change. Especially if these certain â€Å"activities† are being a requirement and not just an option because there are always students who never try new activities and miss out on opportunities. Therefore, students should be offered extracurricularRead MoreMovie Analysis : The Big Bucks 871 Words   |  4 Pagesmoney or improve their social status, teachers are the few who instead of earning the big bucks, will settle to inspire the young, and mold the future. It is an educator’s goal to promote the desire to learn as stated by Jaime Escalante in Stand a nd Deliver: â€Å"If you don t have the ganas [or desire], I will give it to you because I m an expert.†(Menà ©ndez). Future teachers can learn from the film Stand and Deliver to appreciate the positive impact educators can have on students facing an adversary, suchRead MoreWhy Tough Teachers Get Good Results1347 Words   |  6 Pages Author and speaker of the compelling article Why Tough Teachers Get Good Results, Joanne Lipman informs the public on different teaching styles and which ones have the best results. Dabbling in the careers of journaling, editing, and writing, obviously attending Yale University has given Ms. Lipman many opportunities to succeed in life in different areas. Although, having such a sheltered life as a white and privileged woman will obviously give her a different perspective of this topic. JoanneRead MoreNew York States Dignity For All Students Act Case Study888 Words   |  4 Pagesshe might come across.   This will allow, the  counselo r to provide information and solution to tough situations.    To fully comply with DASA, a school counselor must discuss the matter and collaborate with teachers, staff, parents, and community members. As stated above, to integrate DASA into the school. The school counselor could best do so by developing lesson plans on the topic. Therefore, teachers could collaborate with the counselor by leaving a period open periodically, where the counselorRead MoreViewing Bullying from the Perspective of Self-Empowerment1384 Words   |  5 Pagesvictim than the perpetrator (thesis). The perpetrator is playing into a predictable pattern of using power to seek social status and psychological control, or perhaps as a result of mental illness as Wente points out. Focusing too much on the reasons why bullies do what they do, researchers, parents, teachers, and children have forgotten to focus on the most important issue: how to turn bullying into a positive (stance). Bullying is not going away; it is something that adults do to each other andRead MoreAdvantage s And Disadvantages Of Being Bilingual1100 Words   |  5 Pagesof us have the privilege to speak two. Being bilingual has a lot of advantages. The amount of people I’m able to communicate with is larger than someone who only comprehends one language. I wasn’t born bilingual. It took years for me to fully understand both Spanish and English. It wasn’t easy, but I am now able to have a conversation with someone who just speaks English or Spanish. It was a long, tough journey, but it was definitely worth the time and effort. Learning one language is tough. EducatingRead MoreAristole962 Words   |  4 PagesEthics in Aristotle’s Philosophy Ruth Geter AC 504 Ethical Issues in Business and Accounting Unit 2 Assignment July 19, 2016 Aristotle Philosophy Introduction I have chosen Aristotle as my philosopher. â€Å"He was the first to argue that equals should be treated equally, and unequal’s should be treated unequally in proportion to their relevant differences† (Brooks and Dunn, 2014). In today’s society people sometimes lose sight of being ethical and often know what is right but chooses to notRead MoreAdvantages And Disadvantages Of Being Bilingual1052 Words   |  5 Pages We all speak a language, some of us have the privilege to speak two. Being bilingual has a lot of advantages. The amount of people I’m able to communicate with is larger than someone whom only comprehends one language. I wasn’t born bilingual. It took years for me to fully understand both Spanish and English. It wasn’t easy, but I am now able to have a full on conversation with someone who just speaks English or Spanish. It was a long, tough journey, but it was definitely worth the time and effort

Bidding for antamina free essay sample

1. In what way is the development of a copper mine like Antamina a real option? In what way is the bidding structure put in place by the Peruvian government an option? The mine had a valuable real option component, in the form of the right to develop the mine after completing exploration. The Peruvian government requested the bidders to state both the premium that they would pay and exercise price (development expenditure) they would set for this real option. What is the correspondence between these real options and financial options? Theoretically real options and financial options are very similar, however real options are usually solved through numerical methods (ex post) the binomial method or Monte Carlo simulation, since these methods allows more flexibility for setting up scenarios. What other real options does the owner of Antamina have? There are basically three options: †¢Option to Abandon †¢Option to Abandon at year 2 with penalty †¢Option of Early Development 2. Conceptually, how would you build a real options model to value the Antamina project? What data and assumptions would you need? Sources of Uncertainty (Variables) Revenues: Mine’s Life (approach = deterministic) Future Prices of zinc and copper (approach = stochastic on years 0 to 2) Quantity of Ore (Monte Carlo) Costs: Operations Expenses (Monte Carlo) Capital Expenditures (Monte Carlo) The spreadsheet, bid.xls, implements one model of the real options in Antamina. You should try to figure out how it works through reverse engineering. According to the workbook intructions. (1) Summary This worksheet takes as inputs the initial payment, the investment commitment, and the number of trials that the simulation is supposed to run for. Outputs: the amount of the bid, the NPVof the mine without the option to abandon (Section A) , the NPV of the mine with the option to abandon after 2 years, without penalty (Section B), the NPV of the mine with the option to abandon after paying the penalty described Section C). This worksheet also shows the penalty to be paid as a function of the investment commitment and the required investment for each of the three scenarios. (2) Parameters – This worksheet has all the input parameters required to calculate the WACC, inflation rates, and other capital markets data used by the DCF calculations. It also allows the user to change the probability of each of the three outcomes for the mine ore quantity. The lower portion of the worksheet has all the parameters required to calculate the paths for the copper and zinc prices and convenience yields. The drift rates are the long-run trend of copper prices, which are assumed random around the long-run trend. The convenience yields are modeled as mean reverting processes, which tend to oscillate around their means. A measure of how quickly this oscillation happens is given by the mean reversion parameter. The correlations between the commodity prices and convenience yields are also included. (3) Simulation Summary – This worksheet has the summary statistics from each of the runs, which areshown in (4) Simulation Results. (5) 2-yr prices – This worksheet has the monthly copper and zinc prices and convenience yields as calculated by the Monte Carlo model. For each run, a price and convenience yield path is constructed on a monthly basis according to the commodity’s volatility, mean reversion parameters, and correlations with the other parameters. The final price and convenience yield path (at month 24, 2 years), is used as input to calculate a 20 year forward curve of copper and zinc prices, which is then input into the DCF analysis to model the future prices of copper and zinc. (6)-(8) DCF spreadsheets – These three spreadsheets have a full DCF analysis of the mine for the three quantity scenarios described in the case. (9) Macro This worksheet is the macro that drives the Monte Carlo simulation. General Model: Basically what the model does is to calculate the PV of cash flows of the three different probability scenarios (high, expected, low) and the register the value obtained in the simulations results sheet, the three different values obtained are the weighted averaged according to the probabilities defined in the parameters sheet. This process iterates according to the number of trials set in the summary sheet. Option 1: In case that the PV is negative then the model automatically identifies this event, the real option is exercised and the PV is recorded then as 0 in another column for this particular simulation trial. The value of the investment is then weighted summed for values of PV 0. Option 2: The process is identical as the one described above, only that in case that the value of the investment is lower than the one initially committed then a penalty is applied. The penalty is calculated as followed: committed investment less real investment times 30% After the number of trials is completed then the model proceeds to calculate the value of the project according to the following scenarios: †¢No option to abandon: Mean of weighted averaged PVs, less the required investment (High scenario) less the feasibility study equals the project NPV †¢Option to abandon at year 2: Mean of weighted averaged PVs, less the required investment (Average) less the feasibility study equals the project NPV †¢Option to abandon at year 2 with penalty: Mean of weighted averaged PVs, less the required investment (average) less the penalty less the feasibility study less initial payment equals the project NPV What are the key assumptions and limitations of the model? How could it be improved? Apart from the obvious sources of uncertainty, the model works with a set of defined outcome probabilities for the high, expected and low scenarios. These are based on â€Å"expert† opinion, meaning that the results could be biased. The model assumes no uncertainty from prices after year two, which is not totally accurate; companies do no usually hedge to 100%, especially when volumes are so high. 3. Using the spreadsheet, bid.xls, calculate values for the project, and then submit a bid representing how much you will pay for the property. You may work in teams, but identify the members of your team when submitting your bid. You will submit three different bids, each one under a different set of auction procedures: †¢If the winning bidder was legally forced to develop Antamina after completing the exploration phase, and was required to pay the Peruvian government up- front for this project, what is the most they would be willing to pay? The should pay only the initial investment of $17.50 †¢If the winning bidder could choose to whether or not to develop Antamina at the end of two years, but was required to pay the Peruvian government a single fee up-front for the right to develop the project, what is the most they would be willing to pay? Under this alternative, there is no investment commitment or penalty; the firm merely pays the government up front, and has the right to develop at the end of two years. If they dont develop at year two, they lose the right to develop the field. The difference between the value of the project with option to aband and the value of the project with no option, for example: PV (Option) $1,662.31 – Pv (No option) $1,366.52 = $ 295.79 ïÆ'   Value of the option †¢Under the current bidding rules, the winning bidder states both an initial cash payment as well as an investment commitment that is paid only if they choose to develop the field. Bids are evaluated by summing up-front amount and 30% of the investment commitment. If you proceed with development, but fail to spend the full investment commitment, the Peruvian government will fine you 30% of the difference. What is the most that you would be willing to bid under these rules? How would you trade off these two components of the bid? PV (Option with Penalty) $1,664.15 – Pv (No option) $1,366.52 = $ 277.63 ïÆ'   Value of the option with penalty 4. What are the incentives brought about by the different auction rules?Do the rules seem to meet what you perceive to be the goals of the Peruvian government? What the government seeks is not only to secure the development of the mine but also the committed capital from firms participating in the auction.

Unitary versus Adversary Democracy

Introduction This chapter begins by attributing invention of democracy to the western world. The invention encompasses relevant institutions such as parliament, representation, and common suffrage. Democracy demands that citizens should elect representatives after a certain period. In democracy, voting settles any instance of disagreement.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Unitary versus Adversary Democracy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This combination of factors sums up the integral tenets of democracy. Thus, the author calls it â€Å"adversary† democracy. This model of democracy contradicts the old democratic order. In the old democratic order, people who disagreed reasoned together as opposed to voting. They congregated with their friends with a view to reaching an amicable solution. This order had no provision for election of representatives. This democratic order encouraged consensus based on mutual respect in pursuit of the common good of society. This model assumed that citizens had a common interest on all matters. It encouraged direct interaction among citizens. The author calls it â€Å"unitary† democracy. According to the author, these models are contradictory in their nature. The author notes that many scholars are oblivious of this contradictory nature of the democratic models. According to the author, both models have distinct ideals that suit different contexts of democratic discourse. The author uses case studies to demonstrate the importance and essence of the two democratic models. This chapter seeks to convince readers that democracy has a role to play in society, despite its shortcomings in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It also shows that unitary democracies fail due to their inability to recognize conflicting interests and their timely resolution. The author observes that such conflicts resolve easily by consociational democracy as opposed to maj ority rule. To decipher the contradictions of both models, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of competing interests. This will help in diluting stereotypes about democracy and its related institutions. This also helps us to understand institutions that serve the democratic systems. Through such understanding, citizens interrogate institutions such as the Supreme Court and congress. Unitary versus Adversary Democracy In this chapter, the author conducts a critical analysis of the unitary model of democracy. The unitary model incorporates the traditional understanding of friendship into the political arena. This chapter asserts the view that unitary democracy has a long history in the field of human organization.Advertising Looking for book review on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The adversary model replaced the unitary approach in the seventeenth century. This resulted from the popularization of mercan tilism and the spread of market relations. Since then, political scholars and theorists view adversary democracy as the only viable model of democracy. They consider unitary ideals as borne out of ignorance and lack of clear understanding on matters related to democracy. Several theorists have initiated efforts to retrieve the unitary model from its abyss of neglect and isolation. This chapter interrogates the metamorphosis of unitary ideals since the ouster by adversary model. Unitary democracy derives its strength from the simple nature of its ideals and values. It demystifies the values of friendship by formalising them through political involvement. The author alludes to Aristotle’s reference to friendship as being a critical ingredient for peaceful co-existence between city-states. Aristotle praises the unity among citizens in a unitary state. Friendship is synonymous with love, thus its desirable and critical value and importance. Friends enjoy spending time together an d sharing experiences that help to cement their bond of communion. Therefore, any state built on friendship must be pertinent in upholding democratic principles and ideals. This applies because it anchors on presumed equality among its members. According to the author, unitary democracy upholds consensus in solving conflicts that arise within a polity. This emphasizes on the ideals of friendship since consensus only works among individuals with rhyming interests. The author marvels at how ancient Greeks endeavoured to strike a balance between unitary and adversary models of democracy. The city of Athens allowed practice of both models in its governance of citizens. Adversary democracy has received criticism for its mode of operation. It leans towards personal interests, as opposed to common interests. Such a model is prone to criticism and negative reaction since it ignores the common agenda of citizens. Previous studies indicate that unitary democracy may not be popular, but it has a degree of consistency and sustainability.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Unitary versus Adversary Democracy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Inner Logic of Unitary Democracy To proponents of adversary democracy, the idea of unitary democracy appears illogical and misplaced. They assume those individuals are always conflicting with disregard for equality of all. They further claim that consensus is superficial in its approach to solving conflicts in a polity. According to them, consensus presents a situation whereby some people shy away from expressing their views for fear of retribution. In order to demystify these assumptions, it is necessary to understand certain concepts that relate to democracy. One such a concept is interests. In unitary democracy, members need assurance for their interests. Being in the polity makes them united with little regard for personal interests. In fact, they replace personal interests with common interests that aim towards fulfilment of common goals. The author defines â€Å"interest† as enlightened preferences among policy choices. The author notes that this is not the sole definition of the term, arguing that readers should endeavour to consider other forms of definitions and insights on the matter. The author argues that unitary democracy can sometimes create false consensus by manipulating members’ feelings to make unnecessary decisions. The author argues that fulfilment of personal interests is fundamental. The author asserts that no collectivity of individuals can have identical interests. He argues that groups can agree on certain issues but certainly not all. According to the author, an ideal unitary democracy would require people to cultivate a common interest on all policy matters. It is impossible to forge a perfect unitary system of democracy. The author concurs that success of a democracy model depends on the extent t o which members cultivate a platform for common interests. The unitary model requires members to have respect for each other. According to the author, members work together to achieve goals and aspirations that contribute to their common good. This equality helps to fuel the sustenance of a democratic system by ensuring that members have maximum regard for interests of other members. The author concurs that unitary democracy is prone to intimidation and coercion in an effort to force members into conformity. The author demonstrates that both models of democracy have flaws and shortcomings. However, such weaknesses should neutralize by pursuing their positive attributes. This ensures a just and free society devoid of oppression and human conflict.Advertising Looking for book review on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This book review on Unitary versus Adversary Democracy was written and submitted by user Dark Wasp to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Human Development Theories

Human Development Theories Introduction Cherry (2010) asserts that a child development which arises from the time of birth to adulthood was greatly overlooked throughout a great deal of the history of mankind. Essentially, children were appreciated as mare small version of adults and minimal concern was focused on the many improvements in their cognitive abilities, physical growth and language mastery.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Development Theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, interest in child development started to crop up the early 20th century, and was aimed at elucidating abnormal behaviors. The proceeding paragraphs, describes just two of the theories on child development. Stages of cognitive growth based on Piaget’s theory of development. (Atherton, 2010) 1. The sensory-motor stage (birth – 2 yrs): According to Piaget, a normal newly born baby will reach a point where it will start to distinguish self from objects. This implies that the infant will begin to appreciate self as the mediator of an action, and start acting deliberately. For instance, shaking a rattle to produce a noise or pulling a cord to set an itinerant in motion. At some level, it attains object permanence whereby it starts realizing that things persist even when they are no more conscious of them. 2. The pre-operational stage (2 7 yrs): At the pre-operational stage, the child learns to exercise language and to characterize things by words and images. At this phase, thinking is still egocentric in the sense that he/she has problems with accommodating others’ views. Also, classification of things is by one feature; for instance, grouping all rectangle blocks in spite of color or all blue blocks in spite of their shapes. 3. The concrete operational stage ( 7 – 11 yrs):Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By this period, the child is able to think rationally concerning events and objects. He/she attains conservation of number, mass, and weight; at age 6, 7 and 9, respectively. Also, he/she classifies objects based on several features and can sequence them depending on a single characteristics such as size. 4. The formal operational stage (11 yrs and above): In this period, the child can think logically concerning abstract intentions, and examine hypothesis methodically. Also, she/he becomes apprehensive of ideological, hypothetical, and the future problems. Stages of cognitive growth based on Freud’s theory of psychosexual development Freud held the opinion that the development process of individuals constitutes five stages. However, Freud claims that many people fail to complete these stages because they tied up their libido at one stage, thereby hindering them from utilizing the energy at a later stage. Libido, in this context was used by Freud to signify sexua l and spiritual energy. These stages include; a. Oral phase stage (from birth up to 1 year): At this stage, the mouth acts as the center of attraction of a child’s libido. This stage is characterized by frustration for dependence on someone for something (Crain, 2005). Obsession at this phase may present as an abuse of oral stimulations such as eating, drinking or smoking. b. The anal phase of development (2-3 yrs):Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Development Theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The individual are introduced to rules and regulations for the first time since they were familiarized with toilet instruction (Crain, 2005). This familiarity period helps determine the person’s future responses to rules and regulations. At this stage of development, the anus acts as the centre of attraction of the libido. In addition, the child is in the process of discovering novel complex motor. F urthermore, frustrations could result; from cognitive responses. Obsession during this stage translates to orderliness, stinginess, messiness, or stubbornness. Fundamental behaviors characterized by preservation and expulsion may be connected to the experiences during this stage. c. The phallic phase of development (4-5 yrs): Several developmentally crucial events, unique to boys and girls, happen during this phase. Below is a description of the aforementioned events: The Oedipus conflict: the occurrence of this conflict begins at a time when the boy child starts to feel sexually attracted to his mother. As a result, he views his father as an enemy, because he is also competing for the attention of the mother. He starts to dread the father’s suspicion about his lust for the mother and the imminent penalty by him for the lust. Spontaneously, the dreaded penalty is that of castration. The castration anxiety: this anxiety drives the boy child to the conclusion that the father h ates him, and may ultimately become excruciating leading to his renouncing of the feelings, and decision to compromise to his father hoping that one day he will develop affection with a different woman just like between his parents. Despite the similarity in the oral and anal phases of growth for both boy and girl (center of attention and affection being the mother), deviation in the focus occurs when the baby girl realizes her lack of penis, a phenomenon referred to as penis envy.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This causes her to despise her mother on realizing the lack of penis on her mother, while she becomes attracted to her father on the ground of his possession of the penis. Similarly, girls start to be suspicious of her mother’s (same sexuality) knowledge of her attraction towards her father and that the mother hates her for that. These feelings persist for sometimes until it reaches a point where she resents her feeling and chooses to side with the mother. d. The latency phase (7 yrs puberty): This period encroaches following the resolution of the Oedipus conflict and suppression of the feeling that developed during that episode. This phase is characterized by rest devoid of any developmental incidences. e. The genital phase: This phase of development starts from puberty and is characterized by development of the genitals and adaptation of libido to its true sexual purpose. Nevertheless, the feelings for the inverse sex cause anxiety since they remind them of the undesirable feelings they possessed towards their parents and the distress associated with them. Contrast and comparison between Piaget’s and Freud’s developmental theories Piaget’s theory describes a child development from the cognitive view point. He proposes that children patterns of thought differ from those of an adult. This he described in his stage theory on cognitive development. On the other hand Freud’s theory explains the child developmental stages from a psychosexual analytic perspective. Based on this theory a child development is explained as sequence of psychosexual phases; oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Every stage concerns the satisfaction of a libido and later determines the adult’s individuality (Cherry, 2010). A Piagetian –based education syllabus emphasizes a learner centered educational philosophy, which does not fit with the contemporary American school educational system including programmed instruction, teaching mach ines, tutor lectures, audio visual presentation, and demonstration. On the contrary Piaget advocates dynamic discovery learning atmosphere in education system. According to the theorist, children should be allowed to search out answers for themselves through questions, experiments, manipulation, and exploration (Wanda, 1988). Nevertheless, children should not be left to do as they please, instead teachers should be in position to evaluate the child’s current cognitive progress, including their strength and weakness. This theory commends for the personalization of the instructions for each student and the opportunity to debate and argue problems. He perceived tutors as the facilitators of knowledge by guiding and motivating the learners. The tutor should provide the students with resources, situations and occasion which help them to discern novel knowledge. Eventually, the teacher should express confidence in the child’s capability to learn by self (1988). According to Cherry (2010), Sigmund Freud’s theory produced shocking reactions following its introduction, and it continues to create debate and controversy particularly on the discipline of art, literature, psychology, anthropology and sociology. The terminology psychoanalysis refers to various aspects of Freud’s research and work including the Freudian therapy, and the methods he employed in his studies. Conclusion These theories sometimes are not a perfect match of the real life experiences a child passes. Besides, they do not sometimes accurately describe the exact events which happen in children lives. For instance according to a2zpsychology.com (2006), some limitations to Freud’s psychosexual development theory exist. The theory cannot be tested with ease, and the evidence collected to proof it is invalid. Additionally, the crucial events such as how the libido is applied lack makers and are not measurable. Again, a long period between the onset of the underlying stimu lus and the supposed consequence; weakness and inconsistency between early events and the future traits undermines the theory. Finally, the theory was developed from the studies of psychotic persons while not from studying children. Similarly, gathered evidence on Piaget’s theory depicts it as overly rigid, since many children have been proven to attain actual operations earlier than theorized, and some individuals completely may fail to attain recognized operations. However, Piaget’s theory forms the foundation for the school of cognitive constructivism where it seem more relevant (Atherton, 2010). Reference List Atherton, J. S (2010). Learning and Teaching; Piagets developmental theory Piagets Developmental Theory. Cherry, K. (2010). Child development theories: major theories of child development. Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and application (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, (2010). Stevens on, D. B. (2001). Freud’s psychosexual stages of Development. October 19, 2010, from The Victorian web; literature, history, culture in the age of  Victoria Wanda, G .Y. (1988). Jean Piaget’s –Intellectual development.

History of Classroom Inclusion essays

History of Classroom Inclusion essays The mistreatment of individuals with disabilities in the past was commonplace. Attitudes began to change with increased scientific understanding and democratic values. Special schools for the deaf and blind were developed. Disabled persons were seen as capable of learning. Conditions in institutions for the mentally ill and retarded became more humane. The first federal laws of the United States designed to support individuals with disabilities were passed in 1798 (Bauer During the nineteenth century, reformers pushed for new and more humane institutions. Many children especially those with severe or multiple disabilities were ignored. Before the passage of the federal legislation mandating services for the students with disabilities, these individuals were routinely and legally excluded from school (Mastropieri Since World War II rapid changes occurred in student enrollment, teacher training programs and state support. A national shift in philosophy emerged due to the return of wounded war veterans. They opposed leading unproductive lives separate from their abled peers. The new trend was toward integration and making individuals lives as normal as possible (Bauer Many twentieth century developments contributed to the advancement of special education. It has been shaped by federal law, the civil rights movement and related court cases, and changing social and political beliefs (Friend ...

'It is impossible to discern from the approach of the judiciary to Essay

'It is impossible to discern from the approach of the judiciary to either the question of the incidence of the burden of proof - Essay Example CJS is accountable for apprehending the criminals, penalising them for their offences, executing the orders of the court like custodial punishment, collecting fines imposed by courts, supervising the community and to rehabilitate them for stopping future crimes2. CJS evaluates its operation by employing the following five indicators namely a) bringing crimes to justice b) enhancing the awareness and confidence of the public c) satisfying the victims by sentencing the criminals d) to redress the disproportionality among various races and e) recovery of stolen assets or properties3. As per recent research study carried over by academics at Birmingham University reveals that crime rates will tend to decline when there are tougher prison sentences and further there is a direct link between levels of policing activity and crime reduction . Hence, the study strongly suggests that UK government should desist from downsizing its police personnel, mainly on the grounds of cost cutting. The ab ove study found that prison imprisonment was especially successful in minimising the property crime by repeat and serious offenders in UK. It also found that if sentence is increased to 16.4 months from that of 15.4 months, it is likely to minimise the burglaries in the succeeding year by 4800 out of annual aggregate of 962,700. The report finds that there is unambiguous evidence that more effective and sustained policing will definitely minimise the crime rates in UK4. Burden of proof in criminal cases Under English criminal law , the most renowned cannon is that the accused will be treated as innocent until the prosecution proves the guilty of offence of an accused by beyond realistic doubt. Though the English law assumes an accused as an innocent, but it yet requires upon the prosecution to produce adequate evidence so that the court can declare the accused as an offender. The famous maxim as held in Hobson5 that one innocent man should not be punished even if ten guilty men coul d escape from the punishment. Earlier, in Woolmington v DPP, where defendant W claimed that he killed her wife accidentally. In that case, the court was of the view that defendant had the onus of proving any defence it which wanted to forward. However, the same was turned down by the House of Lords, and it held that, the prosecution had the onus of establishing all the components of crime except in some extraordinary cases, and it did not acknowledge any defences forwarded by the accused6. Thus, the â€Å"golden thread â€Å" rule which inflicts the whole legal onus on the prosecution, and the maxim that the Crown must establish its case beyond any satisfactory doubt was held in very old case namely 7White8. Thus, in Woolmington case9, the House of Lord set precedent by pronouncing that the prosecution assumes the whole onus in criminal cases. It is claimed that by placing the whole burden of proof on prosecution, it helps to minimise the wrongful convictions by police. It also de notes the severity of criminal convictions and thereby increases the moral convictions among the police. Thus, under English law, the prosecution is responsible for any of defences put forth by an accused like alibi, provocation, self-defence or duress. In Ashley v Chief Constable of Sussex Police,10 in criminal proceedings, the onus of negativing self-defence lies upon the prosec